Religion vs Ethics

Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics return to religion-online Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics by Reinhold Niebuhr One of the foremost philsophers and theologians of the twentieth century, Reinhold Niebuhr was for many years a Professor at Union Theological Seminary, New York City. He is the author of many classics in their field, including The Nature and Destiny of Man, Moral Man and Immoral Society, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, and Discerning the Signs of Our Times.He was also the founding editor of the publication Christianity and Crisis. Published in 1932 by Charles Scribner's Sons. This material was prepared for Religion Online by Ted and Winnie Brock. In this classic study, Niebuhr draws a sharp distinction between the moral and social behavior of individuals versus social groups — national, racial, and economic. He shows how this distinction then requires political policies which a purely indi vidualistic ethic will necessarily find embarrassing. IntroductionThe inferiority of the morality of groups to that of individuals is due in part to the difficulty of establishing a rational social force which is powerful enough to cope with the natural impulses by which society achieves its cohesion; but in part it is merely the revelation of a collective egoism, compounded of the egoistic impulses of individuals, which achieve a more vivid expression and a more cumulative effect when they are united in a common impulse than when they express themselves separately and discreetly.Chapter 1: Man and Society: The Art of Living Together History is a long tale of abortive efforts toward the desired end of social cohesion and justice in which failure was usually due either to the effort to eliminate the factor of force entirely or to an undue reliance upon it. Chapter 2: The Rational Resources of the Individual for Social Living The traditions and superstitions, which seemed to the eight eenth century to be the very root of injustice, have been eliminated, without checking the constant growth of social injustice.Yet the men of learning persist in their hope that more intelligence will solve the social problem. They may view present realities quite realistically; but they cling to their hope that an adequate pedagogical technique will finally produce the â€Å"socialised man† and thus solve the problems of society. file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=415. htm (1 of 4) [2/4/03 12:43:52 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics Chapter 3: The Religious Resources of the Individual for Social LivingIf the recognition of selfishness is prerequisite to the mitigation of its force and the diminution of its antisocial consequences in society, religion should be a dominant influence in the socialisation of man; for religion is fruitful of the spirit of contrition. Chapter 3: The Religious Resources of the Individual for Social Living I f the recognition of selfishness is prerequisite to the mitigation of its force and the diminution of its antisocial consequences in society, religion should be a dominant influence in the socialisation of man; for religion is fruitful of the spirit of contrition.Chapter 4: The Morality of Nations A discussion of the moral characteristics of a nation and the reasons for the selfishness and hypocrasy found therein. Chapter 4: The Morality of Nations A discussion of the moral characteristics of a nation and the reasons for the selfishness and hypocrasy found therein. Chapter 5: The Ethical Attitudes of Privileged Classes The prejudices, hypocrisies and dishonesties of the privileged and ruling classes is analyzed. The moral attitudes of dominant and privileged groups are characterised by universal selfdeception and hypocrisy.Chapter 5: The Ethical Attitudes of Privileged Classes The prejudices, hypocrisies and dishonesties of the privileged and ruling classes is analyzed. The moral at titudes of dominant and privileged groups are characterised by universal selfdeception and hypocrisy. Chapter 6: The Ethical Attitudes of the Proletarian Class If we analyse the attitudes of the politically self-conscious worker in ethical terms, their most striking characteristic is probably the combination of moral cynicism and unqualified equalitarian social idealism which they betray.The industrial worker has little confidence in the morality of men; but this does not deter him from projecting a rigorous ethical ideal for society. The effect of this development of an industrial civilisation is vividly revealed in the social and political attitudes of the modern proletarian class. These attitudes have achieved their file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=415. htm (2 of 4) [2/4/03 12:43:52 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics authoritative expression and definition in Marxian political philosophy.Chapter 6: The Ethical Attitudes of the Proletari an Class If we analyse the attitudes of the politically self-conscious worker in ethical terms, their most striking characteristic is probably the combination of moral cynicism and unqualified equalitarian social idealism which they betray. The industrial worker has little confidence in the morality of men; but this does not deter him from projecting a rigorous ethical ideal for society. The effect of this development of an industrial civilisation is vividly revealed in the social and political attitudes of the modern proletarian class.These attitudes have achieved their authoritative expression and definition in Marxian political philosophy. Chapter 7: Justice Through Revolution Difficult as the method of revolution is for any Western industrial civilisation, it must not be regarded as impossible. The forces which make for concentration of wealth and power are operative, even though they do not move as unambiguously as the Marxians prophesied. Chapter 7: Justice Through Revolution Difficult as the method of revolution is for any Western industrial civilisation, it must not be regarded as impossible.The forces which make for concentration of wealth and power are operative, even though they do not move as unambiguously as the Marxians prophesied. Chapter 8: Justice Through Political Force The group, which feels itself defrauded of its just proportion of the common wealth of society, but which has a measure of security and therefore does not feel itself completely disinherited, expresses its political aspirations in a qualified Marxism in which the collectivist goal is shared with the more revolutionary Marxians, but in which parliamentary and evolutionary methods are substituted for revolution as means of achieving the goal.Chapter 8: Justice Through Political Force The group, which feels itself defrauded of its just proportion of the common wealth of society, but which has a measure of security and therefore does not feel itself completely disinherited, expres ses its political aspirations in a qualified Marxism in which the collectivist goal is shared with the more revolutionary Marxians, but in which parliamentary and evolutionary methods are substituted for revolution as means of achieving the goal. Chapter 9: The Preservation of Moral Values in PoliticsIf coercion, self-assertion and conflict are regarded as permissible and necessary instruments of social redemption, how are perpetual conflict and perennial tyranny to be avoided? file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=415. htm (3 of 4) [2/4/03 12:43:52 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics Chapter 9: The Preservation of Moral Values in Politics If coercion, self-assertion and conflict are regarded as permissible and necessary instruments of social redemption, how are perpetual conflict and perennial tyranny to be avoided?Chapter 10: The Conflict Between Individual and Social Morality The conflict between ethics and politics is made inevitable by the double focus of the moral life. One focus is in the inner life of the individual, and the other in the necessities of man's social life. From the perspective of society the highest moral ideal is justice. 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He is the author of many classics in their field, including The Nature and Destiny of Man, Moral Man an d Immoral Society, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, and Discerning the Signs of Our Times.He was also the founding editor of the publication Christianity and Crisis. Published in 1932 by Charles Scribner's Sons. This material was prepared for Religion Online by Ted and Winnie Brock. Introduction The thesis to be elaborated in these pages is that a sharp distinction must be drawn between the moral and social behavior of individuals and of social groups, national, racial, and economic; and that this distinction justifies and necessitates political policies which a purely individualistic ethic must always find embarrassing.The title â€Å"Moral Man and Immoral Society† suggests the intended distinction too unqualifiedly, but it is nevertheless a fair indication of the argument to which the following pages are devoted. Individual men may be moral in the sense that they are able to consider interests other than their own in determining problems of conduct, and a re capable, on occasion, of preferring the advantages of others to their own. They are endowed by nature with a measure of sympathy and consideration for their kind, the breadth of which may be extended by an astute social pedagogy.Their rational faculty prompts them to a sense of justice which educational discipline may refine and purge of egoistic elements until they are able to view a social situation, in which their own interests are involved, with a fair measure of objectivity. But all these achievements are more difficult, if not impossible, for human societies and social groups. In every human group there is less reason to guide and to check impulse, less capacity for self-transcendence, less ability to comprehend the needs of others and therefore more unrestrained egoism than the individuals, who compose the group, reveal in their personal relationships.The inferiority of the morality of groups to that of individuals is due in part to the difficulty of establishing a rationa l social force which is powerful enough to cope with the natural impulses by which society achieves its cohesion; but in part it is merely the revelation of a collective egoism, compounded of the egoistic impulses of individuals, which achieve a more vivid expression and a more cumulative effect when they are united in a common impulse than when they express themselves separately and discreetly. file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem=1=415. htm (1 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics Inasfar as this treatise has a polemic interest it is directed against the moralists both religious and secular, who imagine that the egoism of individuals is being progressively checked by the development of rationality or the growth of a religiously inspired goodwill and that nothing but the continuance of this process is necessary to establish social harmony between all the human societies and collectives.Social analyses and prophecies made by moralists, sociologists and educators upon the basis of these assumptions lead to a very considerable moral and political confusion in our day. They completely disregard the political necessities in the struggle for justice in human society by failing to recognise those elements in man's collective behavior which belong to the order of nature and can never be brought completely under the dominion of reason or conscience. They do not recognise that when collective power, whether in the form of imperialism or class domination, exploits weakness, it can never be dislodged unless power is raised against it.If conscience and reason can be insinuated into the resulting struggle they can only qualify but not abolish it. The most persistent error of modern educators and moralists is the assumption that our social difficulties are due to the failure of the social sciences to keep pace with the physical sciences which have created our technological civilisation. The invariable implication of this assumption is that, with a little more time, a little more adequate moral and social pedagogy and a generally higher development of human intelligence, our social problems will approach solution. It is,† declares Professor John Dewey, â€Å"our human intelligence and our human courage which is on trial; it is incredible that men who have brought the technique of physical discovery, invention and use to such a pitch of perfection will abdicate in the face of the infinitely more important human problem. What stands in the way (of a planned economy) is a lot of outworn traditions, moth-eaten slogans and catchwords that do substitute duty for thought, as well as our entrenched predatory self-interest. We shall only make a real beginning in intelligent thought when we cease mouthing platitudes†¦.Just as soon as we begin to use the knowledge and skills we have, to control social consequences in the interest of a shared, abundant and secured life, we shall cease to compla in of the backwardness of our social knowledge†¦. We shall then take the road which leads to the assured building up of social science just as men built up physical science when they actively used techniques and tools and numbers in physical experimentation. †(John Dewey, Philosophy and Civilization [New York: Minton, Balch], p. 329. In spite of Professor Dewey's great interest in and understanding of the modern social problem there is very little clarity in this statement. The real cause of social inertia, â€Å"our predatory self-interest,† is mentioned only in passing without influencing his reasoning, and with no indication that he understands how much social conservatism is due to the economic interests of the owning classes. On the whole, social conservatism is ascribed to ignorance, a viewpoint which states only part of the truth and reveals the natural bias of the educator.The suggestion that we will only make a beginning in intelligent thought when we â₠¬Å"cease mouthing platitudes,† is itself so platitudinous that it rather betrays the confusion of an analyst who has no clear counsels about the way to overcome social inertia. The idea that we cannot be socially intelligent until we begin experimentation in social problems in the way that the physical scientists experimented fails to take account of an important difference between the physical file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=1=415. tm (2 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics and the social sciences. The physical sciences gained their freedom when they overcame the traditionalism based on ignorance, but the traditionalism which the social sciences face is based upon the economic interest of the dominant social classes who are trying to maintain their special privileges in society. Nor can the difference between the very character of social and physical sciences be overlooked.Complete rational objectivity in a soc ial situation is impossible. The very social scientists who are so anxious to offer our generation counsels of salvation and are disappointed that an ignorant and slothful people are so slow to accept their wisdom, betray middle-class prejudices in almost everything they write. Since reason is always, to some degree, the servant of interest in a social situation, social injustice cannot be resolved by moral and rational suasion alone, as the educator and social scientist usually believes.Conflict is inevitable, and in this conflict power must be challenged by power. That fact is not recognized by most of the educators, and only very grudgingly admitted by most of the social scientists. If social conflict be a part of the process of gaining social justice, the idea of most of Professor Newey's disciples that our salvation depends upon the development of â€Å"experimental procedures? â€Å"( Cf. inter alia, John Childs, Education and the Philosophy of Experimentalism, p. 37. in soc ial life, commensurate with the experimentalism of the physical sciences, does not have quite the plausibility which they attribute to it. Contending factions in a social struggle require morale; and morale is created by the right dogmas, symbols and emotionally potent oversimplifications. These are at least as necessary as the scientific spirit of tentativity. No class of industrial workers will ever win freedom from the dominant classes if they give themselves completely to the â€Å"experimental techniques† of the modern educators.They will have to believe rather more firmly in the justice and in the probable triumph of their cause, than any impartial science would give them the right to believe, if they are to have enough energy to contest the power of the strong. They may be very scientific in projecting their social goal and in choosing the most effective instruments for its attainment, but a motive force will be required to nerve them for their task which is not easily derived from the cool objectivity of science. Modern educators are, like rationalists of all the ages, too enamored of the function of reason in life.The world of history, particularly in man's collective behavior, will never be conquered by reason, unless reason uses tools, and is itself driven by forces which are not rational. The sociologists as a class, understand the modern social problem even less than the educators. They usually interpret social conflict as the result of a clash between different kinds of â€Å"behavior patterns,† which can be eliminated if the contending parties will only allow the social scientist to furnish them with a new and more perfect pattern which will do justice to the needs of both parties.With the educators they regard ignorance rather than self-interest as the cause of conflict. â€Å"Apparently,† declares Kimball Young, â€Å"the only way in which collective conflicts, as well as individual conflicts, can be successfully and hygi enically solved is by securing a redirection of behavior toward a more feasible environmental objective. This can be accomplished most successfully by the rational reconditioning of attitudes on a higher neuropsychic or intellectual symbolic plane to the facts of science, preferably through a free file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (3 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics discussion with a minimum of propaganda. This is not an easy road to mental and social sanity but it appears to be the only one which arrives at the goal. â€Å"( Kimball Young, Social Attitudes p. 72) Here a technique which works very well in individual relations, and in certain types of social conflict due to differences in culture, is made a general panacea. How is it to solve the problem between England and India?Through the Round-Table Conference? But how much would England have granted India at the conference if a non-co-o peration campaign, a type of conflict, had not forced the issue? A favorite counsel of the social scientists is that of accommodation. If two parties are in a conflict, let them, by conferring together, moderate their demands and arrive at a modus vivendi. This is, among others, the advice of Professor Hornell Hart. (Hornell Hart, The Science of Social Relations. ) Undoubtedly there are innumerable conflicts which must be resolved in this fashion.But will a disinherited group, such as the Negroes for instance, ever win full justice in society in this fashion? Will not even its most minimum demands seem exorbitant to the dominant whites, among whom only a very small minority will regard the inter-racial problem from the perspective of objective justice? Or how are the industrial workers to follow Professor Hart's advice in dealing with industrial owners, when the owners possess so much power that they can win the debate with the workers, no matter how unconvincing their arguments ?On ly a very few sociologists seem to have learned that an adjustment of a social conflict, caused by the disproportion of power in society, will hardly result in justice as long as the disproportion of power remains. Sometimes the sociologists are so completely oblivious to the real facts of an industrial civilisation that, as Floyd Allport for instance, they can suggest that the unrest of industrial workers is due not to economic injustice but to a sense of inferiority which will be overcome just as soon as benevolent social psychologists are able to teach the workers that â€Å"no one is charging them with inferiority except themselves. ( FIoyd Allport, Social Psychology, pp. 14-17. ) These omniscient social scientists will also teach the owners that â€Å"interests and profits must be tempered by regard for the worker. † Thus â€Å"the socialisation of individual control† in industry will obviate the necessity of â€Å"socialistic control. † Most of the social scientists are such unqualified rationalists that they seem to imagine that men of power will immediately check their exactions and pretensions in society, as soon as they have been apprised by the social scientists that their actions and attitudes are anti-social.Professor Clarence Marsh Case, in an excellent analysis of the social problem, places his confidence in a â€Å"reorganisation of values†in which, among other things, industrial leaders must be made to see â€Å"that despotically controlled industry in a society that professes democracy as an article of faith is an anachronism that cannot endure. â€Å"( Clarence Marsh Case, Social Process and Human Progress, p. 233. ) It may be that despotism cannot endure but it will not abdicate merely because the despots have discovered it to be anachronistic.Sir Arthur Salter, to name a brilliant economist among the social scientists, finishes his penetrating analysis of the distempers of our civilisation by expressing the u sual hope that a higher intelligence or a sincerer morality will prevent the governments of the future from perpetrating the mistakes of the past. His own analysis proves conclu-sively that the failure of governments is due to the pressure of economic interest upon them rather than to the â€Å"limited capacities of uman wisdom. † In his own words file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (4 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics â€Å"government is failing above all because it has become enmeshed in the task of giving discretionary, particularly preferential, privileges to competitive industry. † (Sir Arthur Salter, Recovery, p. 41) In spite of this analysis Sir Arthur expects the governments to redeem our civilisation by becoming more socially minded and he thinks that one method which will help them to do so is to â€Å"draw into the service of the public the great private institutions which represent the organised activities of the country, chambers of commerce, banking institutions, industrial and labor organisations. † His entire hope for recovery rests upon the possibility of developing a degree of economic disinterestedness among men of power which the entire history of mankind proves them incapable of acquiring.It is rather discouraging to find such naive confidence in the moral capacities of collective man, among men who make it their business to study collective human behavior. Even when, as Professor Howard Odum, they are prepared to admit that â€Å"conflict will be necessary† as long as unfairness in the distribution of the rewards of labor exists,† they put their hope in the future. They regard social conflict as only an expedient of the moment â€Å"until broader principles of education and cooperation can be established. † (Howard W.Odum, Man's Quest for Social Guidance, p. 477. ) Anarchism, with an uncoerced and voluntary j ustice, seems to be either an explicit or implicit social goal of every second social scientist. Modern religious idealists usually follow in the wake of social scientists in advocating compromise and accommodation as the way to social justice. Many leaders of the church like to insist that it is not their business to champion the cause of either labor or capital, but only to admonish both sides to a spirit of fairness and accommodation. Between the far-visioned capitalism of Owen Young and the hard-headed socialism of Ramsay MacDonald,† declares Doctor Justin Wroe Nixon, â€Å"there is probably no impassable gulf. The progress of mankind . . . depends upon following the MacDonalds and Youngs into those areas. † (Justin Wroe Nixon, An Emerging Christian Faith p. 294) Unfortunately, since those lines were written the socialism of MacDonald has been revealed as not particularly hard-headed, and the depression has shown how little difference there really is between Mr.Youn g's â€Å"new capitalism† and the older and less suave types of capitalism. What is lacking among all these moralists, whether re1igious or rational, is an understanding of the brutal character of the behavior of all human collectives, and the power of self-interest and collective egoism in all intergroup relations. Failure to recognise the stubborn resistance of group egoism to all moral and inclusive social objectives inevitably involves them in unrealistic and confused political thought.They regard social conflict either as an impossible method of achieving morally ap- proved ends or as a momentary expedient which a more perfect education or a purer religion will make unnecessary. They do not see that the limitations of the human imagination, the easy subservience of reason to prejudice and passion, and the consequent persistence of irrational egoism, particularly in group behavior, make social conflict an inevitability in human history, probably to its very end. The roman tic overestimate of human virtue and moral capacity, current in our modern middlefile:///D:/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (5 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics class culture, does not always result in an unrealistic appraisal of present social facts. Contemporary social situations are frequently appraised quite realistically, but the hope is expressed that a new pedagogy or a revival of religion will make conflict unnecessary in the future. Nevertheless a considerable portion of middle-class culture remains quite unrealistic in its analysis of the contemporary situation.It assumes that evidences of a growing brotherliness between classes and nations are apparent in the present moment. It gives such arrangements as the League of Nations, such ventures as the Kellogg Pact and such schemes as company industrial unions, a connotation of moral and social achievement which the total facts completely belie. â€Å"There must,† declares Professor George Stratton, a social psychologist, â€Å"always be a continuing and widening progress. But our present time seems to promise distinctly the close of an old epoch in world relations and the opening of a new†¦.Under the solemn teaching of the War, most of the nations have made political commitments which are of signal promise for international discipline and for still further and more effective governmental acts. †(George M. Stratton, Social Psychology and International Conduct, pp. 355-361. ) This glorification of the League of Nations as a symbol of a new epoch in international relations has been very general, and frequently very unqualified, in the Christian churches, where liberal Christianity has given itself to the illusion that all social relations are being brought progressively under â€Å"the law of Christ. William Adams Brown speaks for the whole liberal Christian viewpoint when he declares: â€Å"From many di fferent centres and in many different forms the crusade for a unified and brotherly society is being carried on. The ideal of the League of Nations in which all civilised people shall be represented and in which they shall cooperate with one another in fighting common enemies like war and disease is winning recognition in circles which have hitherto been little suspected of idealism. . . In relations between races, in strife between capital and labor, in our attitudes toward the weaker and more dependent members of society we are developing a social conscience, and situations which would have been accepted a generation ago as a matter of course are felt as an intolerable scandal. †(William Adams Brown, Pathways to Certainty, p. 246. ) Another theologian and pastor, Justin Wroe Nixon, thinks that â€Å"another reason for believing in the growth of social statesmanship on the part of business leaders is based upon their experience as trustees in various philanthropic and educat ional enterprises. ‘ (Justin Wroe Nixon, An Emerging Christian Faith, p. 291) This judgment reveals the moral confusion of liberal Christianity with perfect clarity. Teachers of morals who do not see the difference between the problem of charity within the limits of an accepted social system and the problem of justice between economic groups, holding uneven power within modern industrial society, have simply not faced the most obvious differences between the morals of groups and those of individuals. The suggestion that the fight against disease is in the same category with the fight against war reveals the same confusion.Our contemporary culture fails to realise the power, extent and persistence of group egoism in human relations. It may be possible, though it is never easy, to establish just relations between individuals within a group purely by moral and rational suasion and accommodation. In intergroup relations this is practically an impossibility. The relations between g roups must therefore always be predominantly political rather than ethical, that is, they will be determined by the proportion of power which each group possesses at least as much as by any rational and moral appraisal of the comparative needs and claims of each group.The coercive factors, in file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (6 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics distinction to the more purely moral and rational factors, in political relations can never be sharply differentiated and defined. It is not possible to estimate exactly how much a party to a social conflict is influenced by a rational argument or by the threat of force.It is impossible, for instance, to know what proportion of a privileged class accepts higher inheritance taxes because it believes that such taxes are good social policy and what proportion submits merely because the power of the state supports the taxation policy. Si nce political conflict, at least in times when controversies have not reached the point of crisis, is carried on by the threat, rather than the actual use, of force, it is always easy for the casual or superficial observer to overestimate the moral and rational factors, and to remain oblivious to the covert types of coercion and force which are used in the conflict.Whatever increase in social intelligence and moral goodwill may be achieved in human history, may serve to mitigate the brutalities of social conflict, but they cannot abolish the conflict itself. That could be accomplished only if human groups, whether racial, national or economic, could achieve a degree of reason and sympathy which would permit them to see and to understand the interests of others as vividly as they understand their own, and a moral goodwill which would prompt them to affirm the rights of others as vigorously as they affirm their own.Given the inevitable limitations of human nature and the limits of the human imagination and intelligence, this is an ideal which individuals may approximate but which is beyond the capacities of human societies. Educators who emphasise the pliability of human nature, social and psychological scientists who dream of â€Å"socialising† man and religious idealists who strive to increase the sense of moral responsibility, can serve a very useful function in society in humanising individuals within an established social system and in purging the relations of individuals of as much egoism as possible.In dealing with the problems and necessities of radical social change they are almost invariably confusing in their counsels because they are not conscious of the limitations in human nature which finally frustrate their efforts. The following pages are devoted to the task of analysing the moral resources and limitations of human nature, of tracing their consequences and cumulative effect in the life of human groups and of weighing political strategies in the light of the ascertained facts. The ultimate purpose of this task is to find political methods which will offer the most promise of achieving an ethical social goal for society.Such methods must always be judged by two criteria: 1. Do they do justice to the moral resources and possibilities in human nature and provide for the exploitation of every latent moral capacity in man? 2. Do they take account of the limitations of human nature, particularly those which manifest themselves in man's collective behavior? So persistent are the moralistic illusions about politics in the middle-class world, that any emphasis upon the second question will probably impress the average reader as unduly cynical. Social viewpoints and analyses are relative to the temper of the age which gives them birth.In America our contemporary culture is still pretty firmly enmeshed in the illusions and sentimentalities of the Age of Reason. A social analysis which is written, at least partially, from the pe rspective of a disillusioned generation will seem to be almost pure cynicism from the perspective of those who will stand in the credo of the ninteenth century. file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. htm (7 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics 0 file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=1&id=415. tm (8 of 8) [2/4/03 12:43:58 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics return to religion-online Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics by Reinhold Niebuhr One of the foremost philsophers and theologians of the twentieth century, Reinhold Niebuhr was for many years a Professor at Union Theological Seminary, New York City. He is the author of many classics in their field, including The Nature and Destiny of Man, Moral Man and Immoral Society, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, and Discerning the Signs of Our Times.He was also the fou nding editor of the publication Christianity and Crisis. Published in 1932 by Charles Scribner's Sons. This material was prepared for Religion Online by Ted and Winnie Brock. Chapter 1: Man and Society: The Art of Living Together Though human society has roots which lie deeper in history than the beginning of human life, men have made comparatively but little progress in solving the problem of their aggregate existence. Each century originates a new complexity and each new generation faces a new vexation in it. For all the enturies of experience, men have not yet learned how to live together without compounding their vices and covering each other â€Å"with mud and with blood. † The society in which each man lives is at once the basis for, and the nemesis of, that fullness of life which each man seeks. However much human ingenuity may increase the treasures which nature provides for the satisfaction of human needs, they can never be sufficient to satisfy all human wants; for man, unlike other creatures, is gifted and cursed with an imagination which extends his appetites beyond the requirements of subsistence.Human society will never escape the problem of the equitable distribution of the physical and cultural goods which provide for the preservation and fulfillment of human life. Unfortunately the conquest of nature, and the consequent increase in nature's beneficences to man, have not eased, but rather accentuated, the problem of justice. The same technology, which drew the fangs of nature's enmity of man, also created a society in which the intensity and extent of social cohesion has been greatly increased, and in which power is so unevenly distributed, that justice has become a more difficult achievement.Perhaps it is man's sorry fate, suffering from ills which have their source in the inadequacies of both nature and human society, that the tools by which he eliminates the former should become the means of increasing the latter. That, at least, has been his fate up to the present hour; and it may be that there will be no salvation for the human spirit from the more and more painful burdens of social injustice until the ominous tendency in human history has resulted in perfect tragedy. file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (1 of 11) [2/4/03 12:44:05 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics Human nature is not wanting in certain endowments for the solution of the problem of human society. Man is endowed by nature with organic relations to his fellowmen; and natural impulse prompts him to consider the needs of others even when they compete with his own. With the higher mammals man shares concern for his offspring; and the long infancy of the child created he basis for an organic social group in the earliest period of human history. Gradually intelligence, imagination, and the necessities of social conflict increased the size of this group. Natural impulse was refined and e xtended until a less obvious type of consanguinity than an immediate family relationship could be made the basis of social solidarity. Since those early days the units of human cooperation have constantly grown in size, and the areas of significant relationships between the units have likewise increased.Nevertheless conflict between the national units remains as a permanent rather than a passing characteristic of their relations to each other; and each national unit finds it increasingly difficult to maintain either peace or justice within its common life. While it is possible for intelligence to increase the range of benevolent impulse, and thus prompt a human being to consider the needs and rights of other than those to whom he is bound by organic and physical relationship, there are definite limits in the capacity of ordinary mortals which makes it impossible for them to grant to others what they claim for themselves.Though educators ever since the eighteenth century have given t hemselves to the fond illusion that justice through voluntary co-operation waited only upon a more universal or a more adequate educational enterprise, there is good reason to believe that the sentiments of benevolence and social goodwill will never be so pure or powerful, and the rational capacity to consider the rights and needs of others in fair competition with our own will never be so fully developed as to create the possibility for the anarchistic millennium which is the social utopia, either explicit or implicit, of all intellectual or religious moralists.All social co-operation on a larger scale than the most intimate social group requires a measure of coercion. While no state can maintain its unity purely by coercion neither can it preserve itself without coercion. Where the factor of mutual consent is strongly developed, and where standardised and approximately fair methods of adjudicating and resolving conflicting interests within an organised group have been established, the coercive factor in social life is frequently covert, and becomes apparent only in moments of crisis and in the group's policy toward recalcitrant individuals.Yet it is never absent. Divergence of interest, based upon geographic and functional differences within a society, is bound to create different social philosophies and political attitudes which goodwill and intelligence may partly, but never completely, harmonise. Ultimately, unity within an organised social group, or within a federation of such groups, is created by the ability of a dominant group to impose its will.Politics will to the end of history,be an area where conscience and power meet, where the ethical and coercive factors of human life will interpenetrate and work out their tentative and uneasy compromises. The democratic method of resolving social conflict, which some romanticists hail as a triumph of the ethical over the coercive factor, is really much more coercive than at first seems apparent. file:///D:/rb /relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (2 of 11) [2/4/03 12:44:05 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and PoliticsThe majority has its way, not because the minority believes that the majority is right (few minorities are willing to grant the majority the moral prestige of such a concession), but because the votes of the majority are a symbol of its social strength. Whenever a minority believes that it has some strategic advantage which outweighs the power of numbers, and whenever it is sufficiently intent upon its ends, or desperate enough about its position in society, it refuses to accept the dictates of the majority.Military and economic overlords and revolutionary zealots have been traditionally contemptuous of the will of majorities. Recently Trotsky advised the German communists not to be dismayed by the greater voting strength of the fascists since in the inevitable revolution the power of industrial workers, in charge of the nation's indu strial process, would be found much more significant than the social power of clerks and other petty bourgeoisie who comprised the fascist movement. There are, no doubt, rational and ethical factors in the democratic process.Contending social forces presumably use the forum rather than the battleground to arbitrate their differences in the democratic method, and thus differences are resolved by moral suasion and a rational adjustment of rights to rights. If political issues were really abstract questions of social policy upon which unbiased citizens were asked to commit themselves, the business of voting and the debate which precedes the election might actually be regarded as an educational programme in which a social group discovers its common mind.But the fact is that political opinions are inevitably rooted in economic interests of some kind or other, and only comparatively few citizens can view a problem of social policy without regard to their interest. Conflicting interests th erefore can never be completely resolved; and minorities will yield only because the majority has come into control of the police power of the state and may, if the occasion arises, augment that power by its own military strength.Should a minority regard its own strength, whether economic or martial, as strong enough to challenge the ,power of the majority, it may attempt to wrest control of the state apparatus from the majority, as in the case of the fascist movement in Italy. Sometimes it will resort to armed conflict, even if the prospects of victory are none too bright, as in the instance of the American Civil War, in which the Southern planting interests, outvoted by a combination of Eastern industrialists and Western agrarians, resolved to protect their peculiar interests and privileges by a forceful dissolution of the national union.The coercive factor is, in other words, always present in politics. If economic interests do not conflict too sharply, if the spirit of accommoda tion partially resolves them, and if the democratic process has achieved moral prestige and historic dignity, the coercive factor in politics may become too covert to be visible to the casual observer. Nevertheless, only a romanticist of the purest water could maintain that a national group ever arrives at a â€Å"common mind† or becomes conscious of a â€Å"general will† without the use of either force or the threat of force.This is particularly true of nations, but it is also true, though in a slighter degree, of other social groups. Even religious communities, if they are sufficiently large, and if they deal with issues regarded as vital by their members, resort to coercion to preserve their unity. Religious organisations have usually availed themselves of a covert type of coercion (excommunication and the interdict) or they have called upon the police power of the state. file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (3 of 11) [2/4/03 12:44 :05 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and PoliticsThe limitations of the human mind and imagination, the inability of human beings to transcend their own interests sufficiently to envisage the interests of their fellowmen as clearly as they do their own makes force an inevitable part of the process of social cohesion. But the same force which guarantees peace also makes for injustice. â€Å"Power,† said Henry Adams, â€Å"is poison†; and it is a poison which blinds the eyes of moral insight and lames the will of moral purpose. The individual or the group which organises any society, however social its intentions or pretensions, arrogates an inordinate portion of social privilege to itself.The two most obvious types of power are the military and the economic, though in primitive society the power of the priest, partly because he dispenses supernatural benefits and partly because he establishes public order by methods less arduous than those of the sol dier, vies with that of the soldier and the landlord. The chief difference between the agrarian civilisations, which lasted from the rise of ancient Babylon and Egypt to the fall of European feudalism, and the commercial and industrial civilisations of today is that in the former the military power is primary, and in the latter it has become secondary, to economic power.In agrarian civilisations the soldier becomes the landlord. In more primitive periods he may claim the land by his own military prowess. In later periods a grateful sovereign bestowed land upon the soldiers who defended his realm and consolidated his dominion. The soldier thus gained the economic security and the social prestige which could be exploited in further martial service to his sovereign. The business man and industrial overlord are gradually usurping the position of eminence and privilege once held by the soldier and the priest.In most European nations their ascendancy over the landed aristocrat of military traditions is not as complete as in America, which has no feudal traditions. In present-day Japan the military caste is still so powerful that it threatens to destroy the rising power of the commercial groups. On the pre-eminence of economic power in an industrial civilisation and its ability to make the military power its tool we shall have more to say later. Our interest at the moment is to record that any kind of significant social power develops social inequality.Even if history is viewed from other than equalitarian perspectives, and it is granted that differentials in economic rewards are morally justified and socially useful, it is impossible to justify the degree of inequality which complex societies inevitably create by the increased centralisation of power which develops with more elaborate civilisations. The literature of all ages is filled with rational and moral justifications of these inequalities, but most of them are specious. If superior abilities and services to s ociety deserve special rewards it may be regarded as axiomatic that the rewards are always higher than the services warrant.No impartial society determines the rewards. The men of power who control society grant these perquisites to themselves. Whenever special ability is not associated with power, as in the case of the modern professional man, his excess of income over the average is ridiculously low in comparison with that of the economic overlords, who are the real centres of power in an industrial society. Most rational and social justifications of unequal privilege are clearly afterthoughts. The facts are created by the disproportion of power which exists in a given social system.The justifications are usually dictated by the desire of the men of power to hide the nakedness of their greed, and by the inclination of society itself to veil the brutal facts of human life from itself. This is a rather pathetic but understandable inclination; since the facts of man's collective life easily rob the average individual of confidence in the human enterprise. The inevitable hypocrisy, which is associated with all of the |collective activities of the human race, springs chiefly from this file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. ll-action=showitem&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (4 of 11) [2/4/03 12:44:05 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics source: that individuals have a moral code which makes the actions of collective man an outrage to their conscience. They therefore invent romantic and moral interpretations of the real facts, preferring to obscure rather than reveal the true character of their collective behavior Sometimes they are as anxious to offer moral justifications for the brutalities from which they suffer as for those which they commit.The fact that the hypocrisy of man's group behavior, about which we shall have much more to say later, expresses itself not only in terms of selfjustification but in terms of moral justification of human behavior in general, symbolises one of the tragedies of the human spirit: its inability to conform its collective life to its individual ideals. As individuals, men believe that they ought to love and serve each other and establish justice between each other. As racial, economic and national groups they take for themselves, whatever their power can command.The disproportion of power in a complex society which began with the transmutation of the pastoral to the agrarian economy, and which destroyed the simple equalitarianism and communism of the hunting and nomadic social organisation, has perpetuated social injustice in every form through all the ages. Types of power have changed, and gradations of social inequality have varied, but the essential facts have remained unchanged. In Egypt the land was divided into three parts, respectively claimed by the king, the soldiers and the priests. The common people were landless.In Peru, where a rather remarkable despotic communism developed, the king owned all the land but gave the use of one third to the people, another third to the priests and kept one third for himself and his nobles. Needless to say, the commoners were expected to till not only their third but the other two thirds of the lands. In China, where the emperor maintained the right of eminent domain for many centuries, defeating the experiment in feudalism in the third century A. D. , and giving each family inalienable rights in the soil which nominally belonged to him, there has probably been less inequality than in any other ancient empire.Nevertheless slavery persisted until a very recent day. In Japan the emperor gave the land to feudal princes, who again sublet it to the inferior nobility. The power of the feudal clans, originating in martial prowess and perpetuated through land ownership, has remained practically unbroken to this day, though the imperial power was ostensibly restored in the latter part of the last century, and growing industry has developed a class of industrial overlords who were partly drawn from the landed aristocracy.In Rome the absolute property rights of the pater familias of the patrician class gave him power which placed him on top of the social pyramid. All other classes, beginning with his own women and children, then the plebeians and finally the slaves, took their places in the various lower rungs of the social ladder. The efforts of the Gracchi to destroy the ever growing inequality, which resulted from power breeding more power, proved abortive, as did the land reforms of Solon and Lycurgus in Greece.Military conquest gave the owners of the Roman latifundia hundreds of slaves by the labor of which they reduced the small freeholders to penury. Thus the decay of the Roman Empire was prepared; for a state which has only lords and slaves lacks the social cement to preserve it from internal disintegration and the military force to protect it from external aggression. file:///D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showit em&gotochapter=2&id=415. htm (5 of 11) [2/4/03 12:44:05 PM]Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics All through history one may observe the tendency of power to destroy its very raison d'etre. It is suffered because it achieves internal unity and creates external defenses for the nation. But it grows to such proportions that it destroys the social peace of the state by the animosities which its exactions arouse, and it enervates the sentiment of patriotism by robbing the common man of the basic privileges which might bind him to his nation.The words attributed by Plutarch to Tiberius Gracchus reveal the hollowness of the pretensions by which the powerful classes enlist their slaves in the defense of their dominions: â€Å"The wild beasts in Italy had at least their lairs, dens and caves whereto they might retreat; whereas the men who fought and died for that land had nothing in it save air and light, but were forced to wander to and fro with their wives and chi ldren, without resting place or house wherein they might lodge†¦. The poor folk go to war, to fight and to die for the delights, riches and superfluities of others. Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, see â€Å"Tiberius Gracchus,† Loeb Classical Library, Vol. X). † In the long run these pretensions are revealed and the sentiment of patriotism is throttled in the breasts of the disinherited. The privileged groups who are outraged by the want of patriotism among modern proletarians could learn the cause of proletarian internationalism by a little study of history. â€Å"It is absurd,† says Diodorus Siculus, speaking of Egypt, â€Å"to entrust the defence of a country to people who own nothing in it,†(Quoted by C. J. M. Letourneau, Property; Its Origin and Development. p. 77) a reflection which has applicability to other ages and other nations than his own. Russian communists of pure water pour their scorn upon European socialists, among whom patriotism outwei ghed class loyalty in the World War. But there is a very simple explanation for the nationalism of European socialists. They were not as completely, or at least not as obviously, disinherited as their Russian comrades. The history of slavery in all ancient civilisations offers an interesting illustration of the development of social injustice with the growing size and complexity of the social unit.In primitive tribal organisation rights are essentially equal within the group, and no rights, or only very minimum rights are recognised outside of the group. The captives of war are killed. With the growth of agriculture the labor of captives becomes useful, and they are enslaved rather than destroyed. Since rightless individuals are introduced into the intimate life of the group, equality of rights disappears; and the inequality remains even after the slaves are no longer regarded as enemies and have become completely organic to the life of the group.The principle of slavery once establ ished, is enlarged to include debt slaves, victims of the growing property system. The membership of the debt slaves in the original community at first guarantees them rights which the captive slaves do not enjoy. But the years gradually wipe out these distinctions and the captive slaves are finally raised to the status of debtor slaves. Thus the more humane attitudes which men practice within their social groups gains a slight victory over the more brutal attitudes towards individuals in other groups.But the victory is insignificant in comparison with the previous introduction of the morals of inter group relations into the intimate life of the group by the very establishment of slavery. Barbarism knows little or nothing of class distinctions. These are created and more and more highly elaborated by civilisation. The social impulses, with which men are endowed by nature are not powerful enough, even when they are extended by a growing intelligence, to apply with equal force ile:/// D:/rb/relsearchd. dll-action=showitem=2=415. htm (6 of 11) [2/4/03 12:44:05 PM] Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics toward all members of a large community. The distinction between slave and freeman is only one of the many social gradations which higher societies develop. They are determined in every case by the disproportion of power, military and economic, which develops in the more complex civilisations and in the larger social units.A growing social intelligence may be affronted by them and may protest against them, but it changes them only slightly. Neither the prophets of Israel nor the social idealists of Egypt and Babylon, who protested against social injustice, could make their vision of a just society effective. The man of power, though humane impulse may awaken in him, always remains something of the beast of prey. He may be generous within his family, and just within the confines of the group which shares his power and privilege.With only rare e xceptions, his highest moral attitude toward members of other groups is one of warlike sportsmanship toward those who equal his power and challenge it, and one of philanthropic generosity toward those who possess less power and privilege. His philanthropy is a perfect illustration of the curious compound of the brutal and the moral which we find in all human behavior; for his generosity is at once a display of his power and an expression of his pity. His generous impulses freeze within him if his power is challenged or his generosities are accepted without grateful humility.If individual men of power should achieve more ethical attitudes than the one described, it remains nevertheless typical for them as a class; and is their practically unvarying attitude when they express themselves not as individuals but as a group. The rise of modern democracy, beginning with the Eighteenth Century, is sometimes supposed to have substituted the consent of the governed for the power of royal fami lies and aristocratic classes as the cohesive force of national society. This judgment is partly true but not nearly as true as the uncritical devotees of modern democracy assume.The doctrine that government exists by the consent of the governed, and the democratic technique by which the suffrage of the governed determines the policy of the state, may actually reduce the coercive factor in national life, and provide for peaceful and gradual methods of resolving conflicting social interests and changing political institutions. But the creeds and institutions of democracy have never become fully divorced from the special interests of the commercial classes who conceived and developed them.It was their interest to destroy political restraint upon economic activity, and they therefore weakened the authority of the state and made it more pliant to their needs. With the increased centralisation of economic power in the period of modern industrialism, this development merely means that soc iety as such does not control economic power as much as social well-being requires; and that the economic, rather than the political and military, power has become the significant coercive force of modern society. Either it defies the authority of the state or it bends the institutions of the state to its own purposes.Political power has been made responsible, but economic power has become irresponsible in society. The net result is that political power has been made more responsible to economic power. It is, in other words, again the man of power or the dominant class which binds society together, regulates its processes, always paying itself inordinate rewards for its labors. The difference is that

Marriage Is Private Affair

Marriage is private affair 1. Nnaemeka sees the marriage as an affair as her wife does not belong to his husband’s race and some of her actions contradicts with their race religion and his father will surely disapprove the marriage. Nene believed the marriage was not an affair as she believe marriage is a happy thing and parents will be happy about their child’s marriage. 2. Religion is everything during the time the story happens. It’s not only a belief, it represents good and evil of a person’s character : if a person follow the religion, he’s a good man.People become superstitious in religion and their free wills were robbed from them. 3. The tribesmen allowed only marriage within their tribesmen because they thought their tribes were strong and allowing other tribes to marry their tribesmen will make their bloodline impure and thus imperfect. One trumps the other means believing one better than all the others. In here, the tribes believed their bloodline was the strongest and therefore forbid other tribes to mix into their bloodline. Marriage is private affair 1.Nnaemeka sees the marriage as an affair as her wife does not belong to his husband’s race and some of her actions contradicts with their race religion and his father will surely disapprove the marriage. Nene believed the marriage was not an affair as she believe marriage is a happy thing and parents will be happy about their child’s marriage. 2. Religion is everything during the time the story happens. It’s not only a belief, it represents good and evil of a person’s character : if a person follow the religion, he’s a good man.People become superstitious in religion and their free wills were robbed from them. 3. The tribesmen allowed only marriage within their tribesmen because they thought their tribes were strong and allowing other tribes to marry their tribesmen will make their bloodline impure and thus imperfect. One trumps th e other means believing one better than all the others. In here, the tribes believed their bloodline was the strongest and therefore forbid other tribes to mix into their bloodline.

The Ed Sullivan Show Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Ed Sullivan Show - Assignment Example Section 2: Bob Dylan’s refusal to perform a different song depicts that he was a man of originality and a fighter for his rights who can stand against the culture. His motivation for music was not to only show his appearance on some stage but to portray his work, talent and what he is passionate about rather than performing with a modified version of his work. Section 3: Mick Jaggar’s insistence that he said â€Å"mmmmm† instead of â€Å"time† suggests that many musicians consider censorship as modifying their work for a certain occasion or a situation so that their work can be represented in its original form at other place in order to ensure its acceptability and fame in its original form. Section 4: The Doors’ response to the act of attempted censorship on The Ed Sullivan Show turned into their own favor because they proved themselves as a group who do not give up so easily and they are someone who represents themselves and their work the way it is rather than modifying it on external demands. Section 5: According to Inglis, it is imperative to analyze the whole situation and its pros and cons before imposing any censorship. The reason being, certain situations themselves allow taking a step of commanding censorship however in certain conditions things like audiences’ entertainment, acceptability and profitability it is bringing to the industry also needs to be focused on. Moreover, the negative reactions by the musicians on the imposition of censorship might also disturb the economy and audience so everything needs to be considered. The Ed Sullivan Show’s motivation for allowing groups they found too controversial was to gain commercial profits and attraction of youth towards because such groups attract the young generation that ultimately increases the number of audiences in the show. Section 6: Based on the conclusions, it is evident that Inglis is taking the side of the musicians as according to him even if the musicians of

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International Business - Assignment Example advantages and better marketing position where as many firms have failed in their international expansion efforts as they didn’t heed the basic tenets ingrained in the critical business environments. In today’s increasingly competitive and international free market economy contexts, transnational exchanging of technology, infrastructure and demographic movement have become increasingly important (Johnson and Turner, 2003, p. 1). The ultimate outcome of this growing importance of international business is that a customer, no matter whether he lives in Europe, Asia, Africa or Australia, will be familiar with a large number of world-class brands like Apple, Cadbury, Coca-cola, Dell, Ford, HP, Nestle, Nokia, Toyota and so on. The effect of globalization is that new brands are seemingly born global, For this research paper, Apple Inc- specifically its Smartphone sector- has been chosen to conduct detailed analysis on the literature related to the international business and organizational factors. This research paper presents an analysis on internal and external environment of the chosen organization- Apple Inc and examines its strategies for international marketing in terms of effectiveness and usefulness for its international operation. Apple inc, founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne in the 1970s is one of the most internationally influential and highly successful companies of today. It is an American multinational company that designs, makes and markets PCs, portable music players, cell phones, software, computer peripheral and services. It markets through its own retailing, online stores and third party sellers (Sander and Slatter, 2009, p. 81, Linzmayer, 2004). Apple was the first mainstream marketer for personal computers and is still an important market player worldwide and it has become a niche player by setting the pace for ease of use, innovative design and customer loyalty. Apple’s story is that one off-hobby machines that a most

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Blog 3 - Essay Example To the contemporary period in which we live in, the two quotes, that is, the Quran verse and the Hadith by Prophet Muhammad play, as they were initially intended, to put greater emphasis on the need for human brotherhood and the practicing of the virtues of goodness of good actions. Essentially human beings are known to have a moral sense of ensuring that they live peacefully amongst themselves and in the current context of the life we live, the Quran verse and the Hadith from the prophet implore us to love each other and help each other (Gauss145-152). The current times are full of various evil deeds propagated by human beings; hence, it would only be essential that brotherhood among human beings is encouraged. As a virtue, the brotherhood will enable one to restrain from doing bad towards another but, only practice good actions (Gauss 102-109). Therefore, this elaborates on the significance of human morality in the former and current

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Formal Outline - Essay Example Let's not forget that we, as individuals, have a personality, unique in itself and equally appealing. 'Mirror, mirror, on the wall, show me the one, I desire'. Does ring a bell, doesn't it You may argue that, not quite. Well, I don't disagree. Welcome to the world of the make-believe, where people from all walks of life, bent upon perfection, abuse their bodies to reflect the personality that they never are. The men and women on the street, ape celebrities and subsequently suffer for the sake of their appearance. The idea of monitoring, measuring, and enhancing is a means to underline the fact that, companies that advertise so profusely in the various Medias, do so for their betterment and growth. Little is said about the after effects of these 'personality-enhancement' products. This is a cause of concern, as people are misled to believing that these health and beauty products are a sure way to success and self-esteem. In short, the ploy to inculcate such demeaning methods is an imposition of unreasonable standards on the consumer. Is everything that we see in front of our eyes true It can be misleading at times. FTV, Vogue, Hollywood and the Internet have a lot in common; Fashion. Yes, ladies and gentlemen; fashion, that you and me admire and wish to model ourselves on. Media plays an important role in influencing out thoughts. If it not were for the TV, Movies, Magazines, and Internet, would we be indulgent and self-conscious Not quite, perhaps. First Main Idea Has it ever dawned on you that what we see on these Medias is nothing short of make-believe Channels beam the rich and famous in hour-glass costumes that cost the earth. We tend to forget the cost, and dream of their bodies as our own. We are made to believe that the slim, underbred women in sexy gowns that cost a fortune, symbolises the successful and dynamic woman of today. Sadly, this is far from the truth. First subordinate idea The names of Jean Paul Gaultier, Carolina Herrera, Felipe Oliveira Baptista, Carmen Marc Valvo, Christian Dior, Karl Lagerfeld, and Elie Saab, to name a few, are breakfast names. They dish out dresses that are show-cased by the skinniest of skinniest models; role models for the never-say-die women of today. But, in reality, are they really as healthy and happy as we are made to believe in Consider the following: First supporting detail The Fashion magnates have all along encouraged unreasonable & unhealthy body images at fashion shows. They have used models who are ultra thin to promote clothes that only they can wear. Luisel Ramos died on the catwalk & Ana Carolina Reston died of starvation. Second supporting detail The sudden demise of Anna Nicole Smith has come as a shock to the film and modelling fraternity. What could have caused the death of this pretty 39 year old Surrounded by controversy right through her chequered career, this ravishing beauty was struck down by an unknown calamity that will go down in history as being under controversial circumstances. Third supporting detail London Fashion Week got under way on Monday with the ongoing debate over ultra-skinny models continuing to dominate proceeding over styles on the catwalk. The untimely deaths caused due to starvation have practically removed skinny

IDEAL READING PROGRAM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

IDEAL READING PROGRAM - Essay Example It requires practice, and it is through reading that people are able to write and communicate verbally. 1. Phonemic Awareness and Language Acquisition It facilitates concentration (hearing, identifying, and usage) and this brings about understanding concepts in speech language and writing. The topic focuses on understanding key terms as used in definitions, knowing what they mean and using them accordingly. Language use is more than just talking; it is about understanding the definitions and ways they relate to speech. It concentrates on sensitivity of sounds as used in words (Gillon, 2012). Apart from focusing on the smallest units of sounds, it also focuses on larger units such as rimes and syllables. Its relation to â€Å"put reading first† is that in following this rule, children are taught about blending and segmentation. They also learn about the sounds and how they relate to the spoken words. Individual sounds in spoken language are called phonemes (Gillon, 2012). This is where the teacher says a word phoneme by phoneme, which students repeat in sequence. Segmentation involves a teacher saying a word, and students dividing the words into phonemes. They learn about rhythm (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001). Effectiveness Learning phonemic awareness and language acquisition is important to first grade students since it enables them to develop communication skills that they used throughout their stay in school. It helps learns to gain knowledge of expertise that makes them to be professional. Most of the first grade students do not know the basic communication skills and the proper use of sounds in words they use. Learning phonemics enables students to become sensitive, attentive and more aware of speech. 2. Phonics It facilitates better reading and writing language skills. Phonics enhances phonemic awareness in that with the ability to hear, identify, and use basic units of language, students can be able to read and write appropriately. It combines sound and spelling and teaches the relation between the two. It uses the alphabetic principle where the sounds of letters and the letters themselves are related with each other. Word reading becomes enhanced since there is the use of both sound and their relation to the letters (Villaume & Brabham, 2003). Its relation to â€Å"put reading first† is that in following this guideline, there is the learning of how sound of spoken language and letters of written language relate. Children are taught this relation from an early age. The use of this is that children are able to recognize and identify words quickly and instantly. Word study instruction involves phonics instruction and is a major in-text feature that enables grown-up children to acquire knowledge on phonics and use it in reading and writing. They learn about prefixes, suffixes, and word roots that they use while reading and writing. There is also the learning of rapid word recognition, and this helps children in gettin g the real purpose of reading (Armbruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001). Effectiveness Learning phonics in the first grade creates the foundation based on teaching students to read, relate, and write. It ensures that students pick up from non-effective reading to effective reading. Students are able to become more confident and composed. It also helps in ensuring that students write meaningful work, and also brings students closer to being fluent, able to use vocabulary appropriately and understand comprehensions (Armbruster,

Privacy Right of Freedom of Information Research Paper

Privacy Right of Freedom of Information - Research Paper Example It goes without saying that the idea of a free and hassle free exchange of information does have its benefits and advantages. Yet, again, the notion of regarding the privacy of the individuals, groups and organizations to be protected and sanctimonious also sounds to be a valid and just proposal. Isn’t it considered to be a common ethical behavior on the part of doctors to maintain the confidentiality of the health records of their patients at all costs? A commonsensical approach towards life amply corroborates the fact that nobody in the right mind would ever like to put up with a society, where the details pertaining to one’s personal, professional and social life are unscrupulously open to public scrutiny and access. As is often said, the extreme of anything is bad. So it is human to expect the state and fellow citizens and the organizations managed by them to respect one’s personal life and privacy. However, an optimal level of efficiency and transparency in the society necessitates a level of free exchange of information and facts. ... nsidered to be a fundamental and innate need of humanity that is to a great extent is essential and a must for individual and social growth in an environment governed by a measure of dignity (Inness 3). However, this very concept of privacy could also be interpreted in a relativistic context, subject to individual preferences and views and the nature of the situations that breach privacy (Francis 91). In a psychological context, a sense of privacy is a necessary safety valve against any fear of losing control or context (Etzioni 187). Thus, it goes without saying that grappling with, limiting and defining the concept of privacy is utterly unwieldy and difficult, as the idea of privacy is subject to multiple dimensions and facets. In a simplistic attempt, privacy may be considered to be the right of the individuals, groups and institutions to control and determine as to what information about them is communicated to others, how and in what manner it is communicated and when and at wha t time it is communicated (Scoglio 24). In an individualistic context, privacy may be taken as the prerogative of an individual to determine as to what happens to the personal information associated with one (Scoglio 24). May sound surprising, but the concept of privacy could also be interpreted in the context of individual and collective freedom. In that context privacy could be taken to be a control over one’s interactions with the society that maximizes freedom and autonomy and minimizes vulnerability and possible threats to individual or group integrity. In other words (Boling 85). Privacy is an attempt on the part of individuals, groups and organizations to mark their respective boundaries (Boling 85). It goes without saying that the contemporary age of information has added many new

Advantage of social networking Essay Example for Free

Advantage of social networking Essay These social networking websites create an online community of Internet users, each offering different advantages of social networking to its many members. There are three common advantages of social networking and there are communication, up-to-date information and business opportunities. The first advantages of social networking site is that the people can communicate regardless of distance from each other at very low cost. Relationships among family, friends and relatives grew closer. With one click, they can share the latest news or commenting on pictures uploaded to their StudyMode. om is the webs profile. Finding new friends on site is also very easy compared to the leading learning tool. conventional method. People with low self-esteem may make their friends We inspire millions of students through these social networking sites. When they interact with other people every day with over 1,600,000 through the internet, it becomes easier for shy people or those who have low model essays and papers, AP notes self-esteem since they don’t have to talk with people face to face. They can share and learn about other countries culture, people lifestyle, places of and book notes. nterest and many more. However, people need to be extra be careful when they want to meet friends whom they know from social networking sites so that they will not be cheated or lead themselves into dangers. Related Essays Advantages of social networks Having a social network accounts is a must for everyone because it can Robert Patton ENG110, Professor Silvey 30 September 2011 The Disadvantages of Social Netw ork spread information quickly. For example, you can now get live traffic 6 Pages October 2011 information u pdates using the popular micro-blogging site Twitter. This Social networks service will let you know of any major traffic incidents, along with timely Social Netw orks Facebook, Tw itter, and LinkedIn are just a few examples of some the major information to help you on your way efficiently. More people get their news 5 Pages April 2012 from the social network than from newspapers or radio. People share links to latest world news or sports events by e-mail, post articles on their Facebook and other [continues] thesis. social networks CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND Introduction Technology has brought great change.

Dance Critique Essay Example for Free

Dance Critique Essay In Fall 2012 there was a production called Jubilation taken place in El Camino College in the Campus Theatre. The Dance consist of many different styles of dancing from African dance by Nichole â€Å"Nittche† Thompson Spirit Within, to Tango as demonstrated in La Revancha Del Tango, choreographed by Imara Quinonez. One of the most common and best performed dances that was presented in the production were The Gift and Broadway Bound, choreographed by Bernice Boseman. Broadway Bound consisted of twelve dancers, and performed as a single group of girls, a single group of guys, and girls and guys dancing together. However, in the performance of The gift there was just one guy that performed his solo. As the famous song of â€Å"The Little Drummer Boy† started, the lights appear on stage focusing on a boy who was sitting on a rock with his drum. He was wearing a white loose shirt with shorts and a red belt around him. The stage also had a white bright light in the back area of the stage. As the song started seven different characters came in one by one with different color of long dresses and had their heads wrap around with long cloths. As each dancer came in walking slowly step by step towards the bright back stage light, they raised the gift up high and continue walking slowly but this time out the stage. After everyone had exit the stage the drummer boy got up from the rock and went to the bright light and raise his drum up high. Then he begin to dance around to the beat of the drums around stage. At the beginning of the song the first seven dancers who entered walking had a repeatedly step walking in a line. As they approach the stage they moved across the stage using all the space from it. As they exit the drummer boy started dancing. He was doing a solo dance moving across the stage but mainly staying tin the middle area. The boy was doing different type of jazz movements while holding the gift in his hand for the whole remaining time. The work demonstrated by the boy was flowing smooth throughout the music and his dance. Bernice Boseman was trying to point out the cultural part of this dance which she added a visual scenario for us to understand the dance in a different way. By Bernice Boseman adding the gift carriers at the beginning of the performance her intent is to make us see that the gift carriers were rich people with a more expensive gift trying to give them to god. This was represented by the big bright light in back of the stage as god looking down on them. On the contrary, the drummer boy was not as â€Å"good looking† as the rich gift carriers and all he had to offer god was just a drummer with his music. The drummer boy dance to the song expressing his feelings out for giving the gift to god. He would move up and down stretching his harms up and the bringing them down like if he was having a thought for giving the gift to him. He felt like if his gift wasn’t as valuable as like the others. At the end of the performance he kneeled down and raised his drum to god as a gift. For the most part, The Gift was a great performance that made the audience knew the authors intent . The meaning of the song with the dance was very clear and the drummer boy was very focused in showing us the way he felt. In overall, the organization was very successfully and were all committed to the dance.

Challenges in the Hospitality Industry

Challenges in the Hospitality Industry The Hospitality Industry faces three major but interconnected challenges, namely globalisation, the growing importance of knowledge as the engine of economic development and national prosperity, and the impacts of the information and communication revolution, all of which have striking implications for education institutions and economies. Polytechnic West has risen to undertake the above challenges with the introduction of the Associate Degree of Hospitality Management. The course aims to combine current industry practices, combined with a rigorous vocational and academic course curriculum required of managers to face these challenges. The course curriculum focus on hospitality operational skills, management best practice, and the skills needed for continued learning in an ever changing environment. In The Associate Degree of Hospitality Management the assessments are mainly by examinations, presentations and tutorials. The questions are developed with the goal of assessing not only the students awareness of current theory and practice, but to evaluate the degree of reflection and analysis that may contribute to its operational application. The learning environment for the Associate Degree Hospitality Management is conducted in small classes and highly qualified lecturers with relevant industry experiences. The qualifications offered by Polytechnic West is a two year Associate Degree Hospitality Management program which has a direct pathway to the final year in the Bachelor of Commerce majoring in Hospitality and Tourism at Murdoch University. Alternatively the Associate Degree in Hospitality Management is a recognised management qualification which prepares graduates for rapid career advancement within the Hospitality Industry given sufficient experience. The tourism and hospitality industry is a sphere in which attainment of supervisory and management positions can occur at a young age with relevant experience and qualifications. As an Associate Degree graduate, there can be multiple career opportunities and directions which include supervisory and management roles in food and beverage, event management, accommodations, marketing and Human resources in the hospitality sector. Learning Resource Centre Bentley Campus Telephone: 9267 7240 http://library.polytechnic.wa.edu.au Opening Hours Monday Thursday 8:00 am 5:45 pm Friday 8:00 am 4:15 pm Off Peak Periods 8:00 am 4:00 pm CLOSED Saturday Sunday and Public Holidays Resources Each course has a Unit Information Outline booklet which lists the resources required for the unit. These can be obtained from the Course Co-ordinator. Referencing Chicago referencing, based on Chicago Manual of Style (2003) will apply to all assignments. This manual constitutes the authoritative international guide to publication standards and style. At Polytechnic West we respect the ideas of others by acknowledging them with proper referencing. This includes using the work of other students with, or without, their permission. Students must abide by all assessment rules set by lecturers. Any student found cheating in any way will face disciplinary action. Assignments and other forms of assessment must be your own original work. Copying directly from your research sources or another students work, without acknowledgement is plagiarism. Plagiarised work will not be accepted and will result in disciplinary action. Turnitin software is available for students to check their work and will be utilised by lecturers to check for plagiarism. Assessment To be awarded this qualification you must pass all the course units. Assessment criteria are provided for each unit in the relevant Unit Information Outline. All assignments will be returned with feedback on the students performance and the criteria against which the final mark was determined. Submission dates will not be altered unless lecturer consent has been obtained. Results Students are entitled to see their results in all assessment components of their unit, including raw marks for components and for the unit overall. Students may inspect their marked examination scripts and discuss the marking with the lecturer, or nominee, within fourteen days of the posting of results. Lecturers may require reasonable notice or set aside specified times for this. Where a lecturer is away from campus in the two weeks following the posting of results, another member of academic staff must be designated to handle inquiries and be provided with detailed assessment information to facilitate this. Lecturers must retain examination scripts until the end of the following semester. Submission and Receipt of Assignments: submit a cover sheet with all written work for continuous assessment which includes a signed declaration of authenticity; ensure delivery of the assessment work to the secure location provided; and maintain a copy of all submitted work until at least the expiration of the appeal period. Penalties may also apply when an extension is granted; refer to the Course Co-ordinator for details. Grading System Final results in all units shall be reported according to the following system of letter grades: Final Grades Letter Grade Interpretation Application Academic transcripts will include both the grade and final mark for all students. HD High Distinction Exceptional performance indicating complete and comprehensive understanding of the subject matter; genuine mastery of relevant skills; demonstration of an extremely high level of interpretative and analytical ability and intellectual initiative; and achievement of all major and minor objectives of the unit. 80 100% D Distinction Excellent performance indicating a very high level of understanding of the subject matter; development of relevant skills to a very high level; demonstration of a very high level of interpretive and analytical ability and intellectual initiative; and achievement of all major and minor objectives of the unit. 70 79% C Credit Good performance indicating a high level of understanding of subject matter; development of relevant skills to a high level; demonstration of a high level of interpretive and analytical ability and achievement of all major objectives of the unit; some minor objectives may not be fully achieved. 60 69% P Pass Satisfactory performance indicating an adequate understanding of most of the basic subject matter; partial development of relevant skills; adequate interpretive and analytical ability and achievement of all major objectives of the unit; some minor objectives may not be achieved. 50 59% UP Ungraded Pass Successful completion of a unit assessed on a pass/fail basis, indicating satisfactory understanding of subject matter; satisfactory development of relevant skills; satisfactory interpretive and analytical ability and achievement in all major objectives of the unit. 50% or above N Fail Unsatisfactory performance indicating an inadequate understanding of the basic subject matter; failure to develop relevant skills; insufficient evidence of interpretive and analytical ability; and failure to achieve major and minor objectives of the unit. Below 50% DNS Fail Failure to submit any assessed work after the withdrawal date and failure to withdraw prior to the withdrawal date. Did not participate in any assessments S Supplementary The award of the grade S shall be at the discretion of the Higher Education Board of Examiners. 45 49% Interim Grades Letter Grade Interpretation G Good Standing A result of good standing (G) must be reported only at the end of the academic year where all results in that enrolment option are not due to be completed until the end of the first or second semester of the following year. NA Not Available A result of not available (NA) must be reported only where: a delay is caused by the unavoidable absence of the Higher Education Course Coordinator; where an examination script has yet to be received by the College; where the final grade is under consideration due to disciplinary action or administrative encumbrance; where the Higher Education Board of Examiners has approved assessment in that unit taking place after the assessment period for that semester, including where the repeat of a component (e.g. involving practical work or a placement) cannot reasonably be arranged within the semester period. The Higher Education Board of Examiners has the sole discretion in determining whether a supplementary assessment is to be allocated; it is not an automatic right of the student. However, the supplementary assessment discretion will be applied to all students in an equitable manner. The nature of any supplementary assessment will be at the discretion of the Higher Education Board of Examiners. The only grades available after supplementary assessment are a P or N. An ungraded pass is not available. S Supplementary A result of supplementary assessment (S) may be reported where the student has a borderline fail grade (45-49%) for the unit. The timing of any supplementary assessment will be at the discretion of the relevant Higher Education Course Co-ordinator. Q A result of deferred assessment (Q) shall be reported only where deferred assessment has been approved by the Higher Education Course Coordinator. Initial unit assessment advice shall indicate whether or not moderation may be applied to the unit assessment. Final grades will be rounded (0.5 and above up, 0.49 and below down). Individual assessment components must not be rounded and only be submitted as whole percentages. Final numerical marks are to be presented as a whole number. Student Rights and Responsibilities It is the responsibility of every student to be aware of the policies and procedures that relate to their rights and responsibilities as a student. These can be found in the student handbook and on the Polytechnic West website. www.polytechnic.wa.edu.au Client Services Client Services staff can help you make your further education applications more competitive and can assist with decisions about your course/career choice. Client Services staff can also offer advice and support. If they cannot directly assist, suggestions can be made about referral to other staff or appropriate agencies which may be able to help if you are experiencing personal problems or difficulties with your study. Appointments with Client Services staff may be arranged at a Customer Service Centre or by phoning 9267 7500. Unit Fees The tuition fee for international students is: $1 525 per unit The tuition fee for domestic students is: $1 200 per unit These fees are valid for Semester 1 and Semester 2, 2011 Fees are reviewed on an annual basis Current fees and charges schedule is available on the Polytechnic West website. UNIT SYNOPSES INTRODUCTORY STUDIES IN HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM (64371) This unit examines todays travel and tourism industry from a global perspective, with specific insights into the economic, political and social forces that drive and shape it. It also looks at the tourism product and its markets. The unit also focuses on the economic impact, socio-cultural, environmental impacts of tourism and the development of sustainable tourism. The unit takes a systematic approach to the study of tourism and its links to the hospitality industry. It covers tourist types and behaviour, the role of places in tourists itineraries and their experience, environmental impacts, sustainability and eco-tourism, cultural impacts and authenticity, the impacts of events, and the structure of tourism industries. HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY (64732) This unit looks at analyzing the behavior of people at work in the Hospitality Industry. It will recognise the importance of effective management of people in the work situation, and evaluate personnel policies and procedures related to the hospitality industry. The unit will also identify the nature of the hospitality industry, staffing characteristics, interrelationships and behaviors of people. ROOMS DIVISION MANAGEMENT (64388) This unit is designed to familiarize students with management of the accommodation sector of the hospitality industry. The principles and procedures in the provision of quality tourist accommodation are studied with emphasis on front office, housekeeping, concierge and security safety. The unit has a managerial focus, and will look at how to manage properties efficiently, effectively and profitably. The unit will also provide an overview of the legal responsibilities of managers and the impact of new technologies on the industry. Students will be introduced to Fidelio, a current Front Office computerized property management system (PMS), in a practical environment, to enhance their understanding of the course concepts. LEGAL ENVIRONMENT (64374) This unit looks at the legal system in terms of civil liability, contract law and workplace environmental law. It provides the skills and knowledge to manage employment law and industrial relations, health, safety and security issues within a tourism or hospitality context. The aim of most legal systems is to provide a means of resolving conflicts in a fair and harmonious way. All legal systems are strongly influenced by the major forces that shape the society in which they operate. HOTEL AND RESTAURANT INFORMATION SYSTEMS (64375) This unit is designed to familiarize students with systems which are used in the hotel and restaurant industry. Information systems and the increasing application of technology to the hotel and restaurant industries will be analyzed from a conceptual and theoretical perspective. The unit has a managerial focus, and will look at the human issues of using information systems in the hospitality industry. In particular, the unit will provide an overview of the impacts of technology on the managers, workforce and customers of the industry. Students will encounter a range of theoretical and practical applications of information technology, which are unique to these industries including reservations systems, guest history systems, electronic point of sale systems, and guest driven applications such as automatic check-in and automatic checkout INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT (64376) This unit looks at the rapid and unpredictable change characteristics todays work and social environments. What might have worked yesterday is unlikely to work in todays vastly different environment. We can no longer structure organizations and mange people as we did yesterday. Todays managers must have broad management skills and styles, which they will continually adapt and develop. Pressure is on the manager to increase productivity and lead in a more participative, consultative way. Technological advances will proceed in leaps and bounds. Work patterns will continue to change dramatically. Our economy will be volatile until it adjusts and gives way to a global economy. INTRODUCTION TO ACCOUNTING (64377) This is an introductory unit and the focus is on the definitions, concepts, principles and theories necessary to develop a clear understanding of accounting statements, their uses and their limitations. The unit concentrates on the needs of users of financial statements; and includes parties external to the organisation (for example, investors, employees, government, shareholders and the general public) and internal users (for example, management). FOOD AND BEVERAGE MANAGEMENT (64378) This unit is designed to familiarize students with management of the food and beverage sector of the hospitality industry.This unit will provide the students with knowledge of functions and responsibilities of a food and beverage manager and activities of the all food and beverage outlets. The unit also looks at how to manage the food and beverage department efficiently, effectively and profitably. PRINCIPLES OF COMMERCIAL LAW (H2045) This unit introduces students to the Australian legal system, its operation and development, and to the principles of law applicable to core areas of business, such as contract law, tort law and agency law. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND SERVICES MARKETING (64380) This unit deals with the skills and knowledge required by marketers to understand consumer behavior and then use the information in demonstrating effective services marketing. Factors that have contributed to the development of consumer behavior and services marketing include the fast pace of new product introduction, shorter product cycles, the high rate of new product failures and the increased interest in consumer protection by private groups and public decision makers and concern over the environment. Consumer behavior and services marketing have become an integral part of strategic market planning. This unit also aims to provide an understanding of the theory and practices in the development and execution of service marketing strategies (both consumer and business-to-business services). MANAGING PHYSICAL ASSETS (64381) The unit highlights the fact that facilities play a major role in the hospitality industry and guest satisfaction. They can provide an appealing visual environment that contributes to the overall ambiance, experience and comfort of the guest. The unit also serves to provide the awareness and knowledge to make appropriate decisions in managing the maintenance in a hospitality building. Properly managed systems from design to operations can result in considerable long-term savings or on the contrary, the failure to manage such systems can result in significant long term costs. ORGANISATIONAL THEORY AND BEHAVIOUR (H2044) This unit provides a basic understanding of individual and group behaviour in organisations, as well as exploring some organisational theories and management processes. Topics include: individual dimensions of behaviour personality, perception and learning, communication and motivation; groups and interpersonal influence structure, values, interaction and leadership; and organisational issues such as structure, processes, design, decision making; organisational change and development. Globalisation and sustainability are embedded into this unit as recurring themes. HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM MANAGEMENT (64383) This unit examines todays hospitality and tourism industry with specific insights into the economic, political and social forces that drive and shape it. The scope of the hospitality industry comprise of businesses that provide services and facilities such as accommodation, food, beverages, entertainment, gaming and related products. The hospitality industry is a sector of the broader tourism industry. Tourism is an essential ingredient to the economic well-being of many regions in Australia. Demand for product and services have become increasingly price sensitive and environmentally friendly. As such, this unit deals with the skills and knowledge required to develop and monitor a business plan. EVENTS MANAGEMENT (64384) This unit looks at the responsibility of better defining event objectives, site selection, developing timelines, budgets, and all logistical details. These details include but are not limited to registration and hospitality, food beverage, meetings and keynote speakers, ground transportation, activities, VIPs, accommodation and billing. PRINCIPLES OF FINANCE AND BANKING (H2043) This unit exposes students to the application of financial mathematics to various personal financial decisions including valuing debt, equity, and hybrid securities. In the process, characteristics of these securities are detailed and valuation incorporating the respective securitys cash flows, time value of money and the associated risk are presented. The unit also addresses the principles of maximising shareholder wealth and firm value. The interplay between these principles is examined by consideration of information asymmetry between the different stakeholders HUMAN RESOURCE AND ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (H2046) This unit aims to explore the choices organisations have for assisting employees to work effectively and adapt to change. The unit introduces the role of human resource management (HRM) to organisation development. Individual, team, HRM and strategic concepts are linked to the strategies and processes organisations and individuals use to proactively promote organisational citizenship throughout change.